The Mondo Esoterica Guide to:

Hammer Films
  


  About Hammer Films:

Hammer Studios are best known for their range of period and modern horror films, often starring Peter Cushing and Christopher Lee, with brightly coloured action and plenty of low-cut dresses. However, from their beginnings in the 1930s until the 1970s Hammer also shot gritty crime and war dramas, fantasy adventures, psychological thrillers, sinister sci-fi pictures and a range of comedy films.

Hammer was initially founded in the 1930s by William Hinds and Enrique Carreras as a small scale production and distribution business. Among several comedy films, one of their biggest early sucesses was The Mystery of the Mary Celeste (1935) starring household horror icon Bela Lugosi. The decline in British cinema in the run up to, and duration of, the Second World War saw Hammer productions bankrupted, and only their distribution firm Exclusive pictures survive. After the war, the British film industry was in a poor state, and the Government passed a law obliging cinemas to show a British film for every American import. In 1947, Anthony Hinds and James Carreras, sons of the founders, relaunched the studio as production arm to Exclusive pictures, aiming to provide low budget films to fill the cinema quotas. The majority of their films from this period were low budget action and drama pieces, mostly based on popular BBC Radio serials - including the Dick Barton trilogy, and Adventures of PC 47 (1949). With the advantage of an existing audience base giving them strong audience figures, the films gradually grew larger and more expensive.

In 1951, Hammer moved into Down Place, later renamed Bray Studios. A large country house outside London where they could shoot their films without need to hire expensive sets and studio time, it was their home until 1966. Although their BBC adaptations were popular domestically they lacked a foreign audience base and there was big money to be made exporting films to America. Following their sucessful formula by shooting films with existing popularity, Hammer shot a number of film-noir style crime dramas with imported American stars in the lead roles, including The Last Page (1952) and Bad Blonde (1953) - the former marking the arrival of Hammer's top director Terence Fisher. Science-Fiction was big in the 1950s, and after sucessfully distributing American production Rocketship X-M (1950) in the UK, Hammer set-out to make its own version, the murder mystery Spaceways (1953) as well as the more psychological sci-fi picture Four Sided Triangle (1953). Veteran director and writer Val Guest arrived at Hammer at the invite of comedy actor Bill Lyons to direct his starring picture Life with the Lyons (1954) and quickly became a top name at the studio, directing their first colour film Men of Sherwood Forest (1954). The next year, Hammer shot their most important film to date: The Quatermass Xperiment (1955) was based on a highly popular BBC TV serial and was the first British made movie to receive an X certificate. At the time of its production, British cinema was in another slow down - the rise of television was threatening cinemas. Experimenting both with colour and widescreen lenses, Hammer shot a number of short films during this period, before the sucess of Quatermass brought them back to feature-films. Originally conceived as a sequel, X the Unknown (1956) couldn't carry the Quatermass name due to rights issues, but with its similar theme of scientists fighting an alien presence it performed equally well. When the BBC screened their own sequel, Quatermass II, Hammer quickly brought the rights and filmed this too.




In 1956, the studio was approached by American writers Milton Subotsky and Max J Rosenberg with a proposal for a film based on the Frankenstein story. Encouraged by the sucess of their X rated sci-fi/horror pictures, Hammer accepted and after a lengthy series of re-writes, mostly motivated by concerns over threatened lawsuits by Universal studios should the picture borrow any themes from the 1930s Frankenstein films, Hammer studios presented The Curse of Frankenstein (1957) which brought the company, and the leading cast, British television favourite Peter Cushing and the otherwise unknown Christopher Lee, worldwide recognition, but also brought Hammer into their first run-ins with the British censors - problems they would face for the rest of their existence. Cushing and Lee immediately became Hammer's biggest name stars and the studio rushed to find new starring opportunties for them; Peter Cushing starred in The Abominable Snowman (1957) and work was begun on a Frankenstein sequel; however, Hammer's next partnership for their biggest stars was a different, but equally well known tale of classic, gothic horror - Horror of Dracula (1958). This film proved to be even more popular than the last, and secured the studio, and cast's, infamy - and more importantly, brought them to the attention of international producers. Revenge of Frankenstein (1958) was a sucess and heralded the start of what was to be a long series of films. Meanwhile, Universal Studios, heavily boosted by the US Distribution rights to Hammer's Dracula, offered the studio the filming rights to their entire library of horror stories. Although Hammer's third Lee/Cushing film Hound of the Baskervilles (1959) was a disappointment - not enough scares to be a horror film, and not enough mystery to be a Holmes, the duo were paired up again (for the last time for five years) in The Mummy (1959), which was to break even Dracula's audience records.

The 1960s began with a muddled attempt to bring a sequel to Dracula (1958), eventually this ended up as Brides of Dracula (1960) with Peter Cushing returning as Van Helsing. The unexpectedly gritty crime film Hell is a City (1960) marked the departure of director Val Guest, meanwhile, director Seth Holt made his debut with Taste of Fear (1960), the first of a series of psychological thrillers written by Jimmy Sangster. Continuing their partnership with Universal-International, Hammer looked to produce a Werewolf picture; rejecting the option of remaking Universal's Wolf Man films, they based their film on Guy Endor's 1933 novel 'Werewolf of Paris'. Entitled Curse of the Werewolf (1961), it features the first leading role of Oliver Reed and it performed well at the box office, but not to the scale of Hammer's earlier films, and they would not feature a werewolf story again until their 1980 TV series. The studio's next period production was even less sucessful; more romance than horror, Phantom of the Opera (1962) with Herbert Lom in the lead role was a poor performer, and Terence Fisher, director of both films, did not work for the company for several years. After another box office failure, this time of their comedy Watch it, Sailor! (1961), Hammer turned to the classic swashbuckling Pirate film; Christopher Lee and Oliver Reed starred in the very sucessful Pirates of Blood River (1962) and Peter Cushing joined Oliver Reed in Captain Clegg (1962). Inevitably though, the excitement from Hammer's late '50s sucesses was dying down, and the less than stellar performances of their recent big budget pictures meant that the beginning of 1962 saw some major changes at the studio - a cease in filming until May of that year saw many of the experienced Hammer crew leaving to work elsewhere in the industry, many of whom would not return. Some consider this the end of Hammer's golden age.

Trying to get back on their feet, Hammer shot three quick Jimmy Sangster contemporary suspense thrillers: Maniac (1963), Paranoiac (1963) and Nightmare (1964), the last two with Freddy Francis in Hammer's director chair for the first time. In place of Terence Fisher, they brought in Australian Don Sharp to direct Kiss of the Vampire (1963). A return to the classic Hammer gothic style, it began life as a sequel to Dracula (1958), and incorporated many unused ideas from Brides of Dracula (1960), including the beginning and ending. Fortunately, all four films proved sucessful, and by 1963 Hammer was back in business. Following the sucess of Pirates of Blood River (1962) Hammer shot two more swashbucklers, The Scarlet Blade (1963) with Oliver Reed, which proved a big hit during the summer holidays, and The Devil Ship Pirates (1964) with Christopher Lee. Continuing their deal with Universal studios, Hammer gained permission to base their next production, Evil of Frankenstein (1964), on Universal's legendary Frankenstein series. Peter Cushing returned to the company after his two year absence, but Freddy Francis replaced Terence Fisher at the helm, and the film failed to capture the magic of either the Universal or Hammer series. Fisher eventually returned, and Cushing and Lee were be re-united for the first time in 5 years in The Gorgon (1964), which although popular, was let down by a poor script and monster effects.

In the meantime, Hammer sucess had been influencing other firms. In the UK Milton Subotsky and Max J Rosenberg - who had inspired Hammer's Curse of Frankenstein (1957), but been largely uncredited - founded Amicus Productions. From 1965 to 1977 they shot 24 films, including a couple of thrillers and sci-fi pictures, but mostly horror films. Their coup was to aquire the frequent services of Hammer mainstays Peter Cushing and Christopher Lee, as well as directors Freddy Francis and Seth Holt. In Europe, the commerical sucess of Hammer's horror films gave directors Mario Bava, Antonio Margheriti, Jess Franco and Harald Reinl the chance to shoot their own gothic horrors - all four ultimately taking advantage of Hammer's biggest star Christopher Lee.

Struggling to find new ideas, Hammer unsucessfully tried to recapture the sucess of some of their earlier projects with unattached-sequels The Curse of the Mummy's Tomb (1964) and Secret of Blood Island (1965), as well as a new Sangster psycho-thriller Hysteria (1965). Although not flops, the films were unsucessful, and Hammer needed another big sucess - She (1965) came about after three years of planning; a fantasy-adventure based on the 1887 Rider Haggard novel of the same name, it was the company's biggest project to date, including location shoots in Israel. The film re-united Cushing and Lee, for the sixth time, alongside popular screen-beauty Ursula Andress. Fortunately it proved a big sucess for Hammer and its box office takings led to an 11 picture deal being signed with Seven Arts distribution - ensuring big budgets for their next films. 1965 was Hammer's busiest year for a long time, shooting four horror pictures back to back on the same sets. Christopher Lee's Dracula finally made his return after 8 years, although in a mute role, in Dracula: Prince of Darkness (1966). But Lee got a much more vocal role in the next film as the titular Rasputin: The Mad Monk (1966), although legal concerns meant that the film had to be heavily fictionalised. As B-pictures to accompany these two, John Gilling directed the atmospheric Plague of the Zombies (1966) and The Reptile (1966).



Hammer's 100th production was the caveman and dinosaur epic One Million Years B.C. (1966). After the success of She (1965) with screen-beauty Ursula Andress, Raquel Welch was brought in for the lead female role, and provide the dinosaur effects, Hammer secured stop-motion legend Ray Harryhausen. The popular film was to be Hammer's biggest ever earner. To maximise their investment, Hammer shot low budget Slave Girls (1967) on the same sets, although its rushed script and production make it one of Hammer's worst productions. Peter Cushing returned to Hammer, after a year-long absence working for their rivals Amicus, to replay his popular Baron Frankenstein role. Frankenstein Created Woman (1967) saw the Baron finally turn his attention to a female creation, although with the usual disasterous results. Terence Fisher returned to the franchise, but while the film had an intellegent script, it suffered from slow pacing. Hammer's final film of their 11-picture contract with Seven Arts, The Mummy's Shroud (1967), was to be their last production at the Bray-house studios where they had spent 15 years.

Hammer played it safe for the next couple of years; returning to two of their earliest series, they produced new Quatermass and Robin Hood films; Quatermass and the Pit (1967) and A Challenge to Robin Hood (1967). More historical fantasy films included sequel Vengeance of She (1968) and When Dinosaurs ruled the Earth (1970), as well as a more recent setting in The Lost Continent (1968). Peter Cushing and Christopher Lee returned to continue their popular gothic horror series with the box-office record breaking Dracula has Risen from the Grave (1968) and the highly impressive Frankenstein Must be Destroyed (1969). Hammer went on to produce their scariest horror picture, The Devil Rides Out (1968) based on a popular novel by Dennis Wheatley, and featuring Christopher Lee in a rare good-guy role. Away from the confines of Bray studios, the sets for these horror pictures were bigger than ever, and the loosening censorship allowed more blood than before, but nothing like what was to come in the following years. The decade ended poorly with Hammer's attempt at a completely different kind of film; their "Space Western" Moon Two Zero (1969) was a disastrous flop and ended their relationship with Seven Arts.

If the 1960s was the decade of the dark gothic horror, the 1970s was the era of the exploitation film. Gone was the off-screen kill or implied eroticism; people didn't want to be scared, they wanted to be shocked. In Europe, the giallo murder mystery films were born, each with more nudity and gory/creative deaths than the last. In America, gritty, realistic horror films were becoming popular. But in the UK, times were hard, Hammer attempted to alter their output to meet these new tastes. Firstly, they upgraded their popular Dracula franchise, bringing the Count to Victorian England in Taste the Blood of Dracula (1970); later in the year they attempted to re-start both the Dracula and Frankenstein series. Horror of Frankenstein (1970) saw a younger, Ralph Bates fill the titular role, while Scars of Dracula (1970) again saw Christopher Lee as the Count, although without reference to the earlier films. Looking to up their sex appeal, Hammer began work on a series of female vampire films based on J Sheridan le Fanu's vampire novel Carmilla - The Vampire Lovers (1970) came first and was a real success, managing to be both sexy and scary, but the sequels Lust for a Vampire (1971) and Twins of Evil (1972) had nothing but gratuitous nudity and were lacking in horror. Also suffering from the same fate was Countess Dracula (1970) starring Ingrid Pitt, that despite its title was not a vampire film, but instead loosely based on the legend of Countess Báthory.



Despite some successes, box office takings were down across the board, and 1970 saw the last of Hammer's big pre-historical epics - Creatures the World Forgot (1970), shot on location in Africa; while the following year saw their last Mummy film Blood from the Mummy's Tomb (1971). Based on a Bram Stoker story, it had a seemingly cursed production, star Peter Cushing left the film within the first week after his wife's death, and director Seth Holt died with a week remaining on the shoot.

Returning to an original staple, Hammer started to shoot comedy films, including On the Buses (1972), and two sequels, based on the popular TV series. A few original horror films were shot during the period, Dr. Jekyll and Sister Hyde (1971) was a new and unique take on the legend and Hands of the Ripper (1971) added a new element to the Jack the Ripper stories, Vampire Circus (1972) was a very original vampire story, while Captain Kronos: Vampire Killer (1973) could have been the starting point of a whole new franchise of vampire films. Fear in the Night (1972) was Jimmy Sangster's return to the psycho-thriller, and this time he directed as well as penning the film. In another attempt to kick-start their Dracula franchise, Hammer brought the Count into the 20th Century with the unremarkable Dracula A.D. 1972 (1972) and its similarly inept sequel Satanic Rites of Dracula (1974) which also added a spy-theme to proceedings and saw Christopher Lee play the Count for the last time. Peter Cushing returned to his first role to give the aged Baron his final outing in the very dark Frankenstein and the Monster from Hell (1974).

Despite their efforts, money was not coming in, and the films were not selling. In a last ditch attempt to move into a new market, Hammer made a two picture deal with the Shaw Brothers in Hong Kong, and shipped out star Peter Cushing. The end result - Kung-fu and Vampire fusion in Legend of the 7 Golden Vampires (1974) was not well received, while Shatter (1974) was little more than a standard martial arts action film. Hammer's final feature horror film was another Dennis Wheatley adaptation To the Devil a Daughter (1976). Christopher Lee played the brooding villian, and Hollywood star Richard Widmark was brought in as the hero. Filmed as a join production with big German firm 'Terra Filmkunst', the picture sold well in the UK, but was not enough to keep the company alive, and Hammer had shot their last horror film....


 
The company was not dead however; former producer Roy Skeggs brought the company back to life in 1980 for two TV series. Hammer House of Horror offered 13 short stand-alone horror films, with popular figures including Peter Cushing and Denholm Elliot returning to star, and some of the old crew returning behind the camera to direct. A follow-up series Hammer House of Mystery and Suspence was less sucessful, and again the studio was put to rest. Officially, the Hammer brand still exists, and there is often talk of a revival, but nothing solid has ever emerged.

For its fans, Hammer remains a symbol of two decades of classic horror, from the good to the bad, to the ugly, but still always watchable and entertaining. It inspired the revival of the horror film in the 1950s, and kept the British film industry alive for a while. It made some people famous, and provides embarassing filmography entries for others. The Hammer brand is one of the best known in cult cinema, and while much of their work will be ignored by the mainstream of cinema-goers, for the fans, Hammer will always be remembered.

 DVD Reviews: Hammer films

A Challenge for Robin Hood (1967)
German E-M-S Region 2 DVD		An exciting family-safe swashbuckler with a good cast and sets, but the plot is rather simple.
Recommended for all.
The Abominable Snowman (1957)
UK DD-Video Region 0 DVD		Cushing goes in search of the Yeti in this rather over-written but well directed film that avoids becoming monster fodder.
Partly recommended.
Blood from the Mummy's Tomb (1971)
UK Optimum Region 2 DVD		Andrew Keir stars in a curious take on the Mummy genre, avoiding all of the usual clichés, but never really working.
Of interest.
Brides of Dracula (1960)
US Universal Region 1 DVD (Hammer Horror Series Boxset)		The least of Hammer's early gothics, good acting and direction is let down by a flawed script.
Not recommended.
Captain Clegg (1962)
US Universal Region 1 DVD (Hammer Horror Series Boxset)		One of Hammer's best adventure films of the early 1960s, it forgoes action in favour of a well written plot.
Recommended.
Countess Dracula (1971)
Network UK Region 2 DVD		A good idea, but a rather unimpressive Hammer production, a real sign of their decline in the 1970s.
Not recommended.
Curse of Frankenstein (1957)
UK Warner Brothers Region 2 DVD		Hammer's first horror film with impressive production and a fantastic leading duo. A very important film.
A strong film, highly recommended film to all viewers.
Curse of the Mummy's Tomb (1964)
Sony UK Region 2 DVD		A rather 'by the numbers' take on the genre, but with some interesting ideas and a genuinely creepy mummy.
Of interest.
Curse of the Werewolf (1961)
US Universal Region 1 DVD (Hammer Horror Series Boxset)		Well written, produced and acted, this is not a traditional Hammer horror title, but is certainly a very good film.
Recommended.
The Devil Rides Out (1968)
Optimum UK Region 2 DVD (Ultimate Hammer Collection boxset)		One of Hammer's best, with strong production, a good story, and good acting. Effectively scary.
Highly recommended.
Devil-Ship Pirates (1964)
Sony US Region 1 DVD (Icons of Adventure Boxset)		A classic swashbuckler boasting its own ship but the U-rating and the simple script keep it from being perfect.
Partially recommended to all.
Dick Barton at Bay (1950)
UK DD-Video Region 2 DVD		A well written and exciting spy thriller with a slow build-up to a good climax.
Partly recommended.
Dick Barton Strikes Back (1949)
UK DD-Video Region 2 DVD		A gritty and dramatic spy thriller with a strong build-up to a slightly drawn out climax.
Partly recommended.
Dick Barton: Special Agent (1948)
UK DD-Video Region 2 DVD		A light hearted boys-own spy film with a rather predictable an unexciting plot.
Of interest, but not recommended.
Evil of Frankenstein (1964)
US Universal Region 1 DVD (Hammer Horror Series Boxset)		Suffers from a bad looking monster, and relatively average performances - however the plot is acceptable.
Watchable but not recommended.
Four Sided Triangle (1954)
UK DD-Video Region 2 DVD		A smart sci-fi script, but with a poor ending, this film benefits from strong direction and heralds the Frankenstein films.
Of interest to Hammer fans.
Frankenstein and the Monster from Hell (1974)
German E-M-S Region 2 DVD		A a very good film with a great script, a wonderfully dark, atmospheric setting, and good performances by all.
A recommended film to all Hammer fans.
Frankenstein Created Woman (1967)
UK Warner Brothers Region 2 DVD		An interesting concept, but an unexciting film.
Partially recommended to Hammer fans.
Frankenstein Must be Destroyed (1969)
UK Warner Brothers Region 2 DVD		A strong, near-perfect script combine with top notch performances and great production.
Highly recommended to all.
Hands of the Ripper (1971)
UK Network Region 2 DVD		Hammer's generally cleverly written and well acted film is impressive although not so entertaining.
Partly recommended.
Hell is a City (1960)
Anchor Bay US Region 1 DVD		Stanley Baker is a police officer on the trail of a killer in 1960s Manchester in this very realistic crime film from Val Guest.
Recommended.
The Horror of Frankenstein (1970)
UK Optimum Region 2 DVD (Ultimate Hammer Collection boxset)		A comedy restart to the Frankenstein family is an obvious misfire and another wasted opportunity.
Not recommended.
The Kiss of the Vampire (1963)
US Universal Region 1 DVD (Hammer Horror Series Boxset)		A surprisingly original gothic horror title with a clever script and some good production.
Recommended to Hammer and gothic horror fans.
The Lost Continent (1968)
German E-M-S Region 2 DVD		Decent production and sets are let down by a terrible rushed script and poor editing.
Not recommended.
Mask of Dust (1954)
UK DD-Video Region 2 DVD		A motor-racing movie with more cars than plot. Very well edited together and with a good climax.
Partly recommended.
Men of Sherwood Forest (1954)
German E-M-S Region 2 DVD		An early Hammer film with a fun swashbuckling plot and good cast/sets, but low budget means it is rather small scale.
Partially recommended.
The Mummy (1959)
UK Warner Brothers Region 2 DVD		An impressive film from the beginning of Hammer's gothic cycle. All the ingredients come together effectively.
Recommended to all.
The Mummy's Shroud (1967)
UK Momentum Region 2 DVD		An unoriginal story gets a lift from André Morell in the real role and John Gilling behind the camera.
Partly recommended.
Nightmare (1964)
US Universal Region 1 DVD (Hammer Horror Series Boxset)		A well written psycho-thriller from Jimmy Sanger, strongly directed by Freddy Francis.
Recommended.
Paranoiac (1963)
US Universal Region 1 DVD (Hammer Horror Series Boxset)		A cleverly written Jimmy Sangster thriller with some strong direction and a superb performance from Oliver Reed.
Recommended.
Phantom of the Opera (1962)
US Universal Region 1 DVD (Hammer Horror Series Boxset)		More period romance than gothic horror, this film was unpopular at the time, but stands up well with a clever plot.
Recommended to fans.
Pirates of Blood River (1962)
Sony US Region 1 DVD (Icons of Adventure Boxset)		An entertaining script allows for plenty of swashbuckling and there is some good direction and acting to help.
Enjoyable and recommended.
Plague of the Zombies (1966)
UK Optimum Region 2 DVD (Ultimate Hammer Collection boxset)		Combine a tight script, some great acting and some impressive direction to make a Hammer gem.
Highly recommended for Hammer fans.
Quatermass 2 (1957)
UK DD-Video Region 2 DVD		A grim, conspiracy based sci-fi picture, much bigger than the first, with strong production and direction.
Recommended to Hammer and sci-fi fans.
Quatermass and the Pit (1967)
UK Optimum Region 2 DVD (Ultimate Hammer Collection boxset)		One of Hammer's best: well acted and directed, and with a decent, if slightly rushed script.
Highly recommended.
The Quatermass Xperiment (1955)
UK DD-Video Region 2 DVD		Based on the BBC TV series, this film marks Hammer's first real move into horror themes and is well directed by Val Guest.
Partly recommended to Hammer and sci-fi fans.
Rasputin the Mad Monk (1966)
US Anchor Bay Region 0 DVD		A stand-out Christopher Lee performance and impressive backing make this a very interesting film.
A recommended film for all Hammer fans.
The Reptile (1966)
UK Optimum Region 2 DVD (Ultimate Hammer Collection boxset)		An unoriginal, but surprisingly well written and produced B-picture.
Partly recommended.
Revenge of Frankenstein (1958)
UK Columbia Region 2 DVD		Solid direction and acting combine with a story that takes a new branch to the traditional story.
Recommended to Hammer fans.
She (1965)
UK Warner Brothers Region 2 DVD		Hammer's attempt at an adventure epic suffers from the low budget, but still boasts top cast and good looking sets.
Partially recommended.
Slave Girls (1967)
UK Optimum Region 2 DVD (Ultimate Hammer Collection boxset)		Poorly scripted, obviously stage bound and with dull acting, Slave Girls has no redeeming features whatsoever.
Not recommended. One of Hammer's worst.
Spaceways (1953)
UK DD-Video Region 2 DVD		An average detective film trying to capitalise on the space-race, boosted by a decent climax, but a poor ending.
Not recommended.
Strangers of Bombay (1960)
Sony US Region 1 DVD (Icons of Adventure Boxset)		A rather mediocre script but some strong acting and directing at least make this film watchable.
Of interest to fans of the Hammer adventures.
Terror of the Tongs (1961)
Sony US Region 1 DVD (Icons of Adventure Boxset)		Christopher Lee plays a sinister Chinaman in this enjoyable but rather poorly acted Hammer adventure.
One for Hammer fans.
To the Devil a Daughter (1976)
Optimum UK Region 2 DVD (Ultimate Hammer Collection boxset)		Almost unrecognisable from the original book, and a simply terrible film overall, it was rightly Hammer's last horror.
Not recommended.
Twins of Evil (1971)
UK Network Region 2 DVD		A mixed up, but daftly entertaining film with a strong Cushing performance in an unusually dark role.
Recommended.
Vampire Lovers (1970)
Alan Young ITA Region 2 DVD		The first of Hammer's female vampire films is certainly their best, managing to be both erotic and scary.
Recommended.
The Witches (1966)
UK Optimum Region 2 DVD		Nigel Kneale scripts this curious attempt to combine thriller with horror, but it never convinces as either.
For Hammer completists.
X the Unknown (1956)
UK DD-Video Region 2 DVD		A solid B-picture, well written with good acting and directing and some geniunely tense scenes.
Recommended to B-movie sci-fi fans.

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All text on this page written by Timothy Young - March 2006 - June 2007.
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